How to Prevent Foot Blisters: A Complete Guide for Athletes and Everyday Activities

Foot blisters are one of the most common yet preventable foot problems affecting millions of people worldwide. Whether you're a dedicated runner training for your next marathon, a healthcare worker spending long shifts on your feet, or someone who simply enjoys daily walks, understanding how to prevent blisters can save you from pain, discomfort, and potential complications.

Research shows that up to 39% of marathon runners experience blisters during races, while workplace studies indicate that professionals who stand for extended periods face similar risks. The good news? Most foot blisters are entirely preventable with the right knowledge and preventive measures.

What Are Foot Blisters and Why Do They Form?

A blister is a small pocket of fluid that forms between the upper layers of skin. When friction, heat, or pressure repeatedly acts on the same area of skin, the layers separate and fill with clear fluid (serum) or, in some cases, blood.

The Science Behind Blister Formation

The process of blister formation involves several interconnected stages that occur when the skin experiences repetitive stress. Initially, repetitive rubbing creates heat and mechanical stress on the skin surface, causing microscopic damage to the cellular structure. 

As this friction continues, the epidermis (outer skin layer) begins to separate from the dermis (deeper layer), creating a space between these tissue layers. The body responds to this separation by producing protective fluid to cushion the deeper tissues from further damage. Finally, as fluid continues to accumulate in this separated space, a visible bubble forms what we recognize as a blister.

Common Locations for Foot Blisters

Foot blisters typically develop in specific areas where friction and pressure are most concentrated during daily activities. The heel represents the most common location for blister formation due to the constant rubbing against the back of shoes during walking and running. 

Toes are another frequent site, particularly between toes where skin-to-skin contact occurs, and on toe tips where they press against the front of shoes. The ball of the foot experiences significant pressure during the push-off phase of walking and running, making it particularly susceptible to blister development. 

While less common, the arch area can also develop blisters when shoes don't properly match foot contours, and the ankle area may be affected where shoe collars or sock edges create repetitive friction points.

Primary Causes of Foot Blisters

Understanding the root causes helps you target prevention efforts effectively:

Friction and Rubbing

The primary culprit behind most foot blisters is repetitive friction, which occurs through several common mechanisms. When shoes are too loose, your foot slides back and forth with each step, creating constant rubbing against the shoe's interior surfaces. 

Conversely, shoes that are too tight create concentrated pressure points where the shoe material presses persistently against specific areas of your foot. Internal shoe construction also plays a role, as seams or rough areas inside shoes can act as abrasive surfaces that repeatedly rub against skin. 

Additionally, wrinkled or bunched socks create localized friction points that can quickly develop into painful hot spots.

Moisture and Heat

Wet conditions dramatically increase blister risk through multiple pathways that compromise the skin's natural defenses. 

Moisture softens the outer layer of skin, making it significantly more susceptible to damage from friction forces that would normally be tolerated. This softening also reduces the skin's natural protective barriers, essentially weakening its ability to resist mechanical stress. 

Wet environments create slippery conditions between the foot and sock or shoe, paradoxically increasing friction as surfaces slide unpredictably against each other. 

Furthermore, prolonged moisture exposure promotes bacterial growth, which can complicate the healing process if blisters do develop.

Poor-Fitting Footwear

Incorrectly sized or inappropriate shoes contribute to blister formation through several mechanisms that disrupt normal foot function. Shoes that don't match your foot dimensions allow excessive movement within the shoe, creating sliding friction with every step. 

When pressure points don't align properly with your foot's natural anatomy, concentrated stress develops in areas not designed to handle such forces. Inadequate support from poorly designed shoes leads to abnormal foot mechanics, causing your foot to work harder and move in unnatural ways that increase friction. 

Additionally, shoes made from materials that don't breathe effectively trap moisture against your skin, creating the wet conditions that dramatically increase blister risk.

Inappropriate Sock Selection

Poor sock choice represents one of the most overlooked yet critical factors in blister development, particularly during physical activities where sweat production increases dramatically. 

Many people underestimate the role that socks play in foot health, often selecting them based solely on comfort or appearance rather than performance characteristics. 

Cotton socks, while comfortable for casual wear, become problematic during exercise because they absorb and retain moisture rather than moving it away from the skin. When cotton fibers become saturated with sweat, they lose their structural integrity and begin to bunch or wrinkle, creating friction points that can quickly develop into painful blisters.

Socks play a crucial role in blister prevention, acting as a barrier between your skin and shoes. Traditional cotton socks retain moisture and lose their shape, creating ideal conditions for blisters.

The importance of sweat evaporation cannot be overstated, especially during sports activities where foot temperature and moisture levels increase significantly. During exercise, your feet can produce up to a cup of sweat per day, and if this moisture cannot escape effectively, it creates a breeding ground for blister formation. 

The fabric composition of your socks directly impacts their ability to manage this moisture through wicking and evaporation processes. 

Technical fabrics are specifically engineered to move moisture away from the skin through capillary action, allowing sweat to reach the outer surface of the sock where it can evaporate into the surrounding air.

Advanced sock technologies, such as those incorporating Coolmax fabric, represent a significant advancement in moisture management for active individuals. Coolmax fibers are specifically designed with enhanced surface area and specialized channels that actively transport moisture away from the skin, providing superior breathability compared to traditional materials. 

Additionally, antibacterial-treated yarns help control bacterial growth that can occur in the warm, moist environment inside athletic shoes, keeping feet fresher and reducing the risk of complications if minor skin irritation does occur. 

This combination of optimal breathability and antimicrobial protection creates an environment that significantly reduces blister risk while maintaining comfort during extended physical activity.

Biomechanical Factors

Your individual foot mechanics and movement patterns can significantly predispose you to blister development. Gait abnormalities, whether from injury, muscle weakness, or structural issues, create unusual friction patterns as your foot contacts and moves within your shoe differently than normal. 

Foot structure variations such as high arches, flat feet, or bunions change how weight is distributed across your foot, potentially creating pressure points in unexpected areas. 

Muscle imbalances affecting foot and ankle function can alter your walking or running mechanics, leading to increased movement within your shoes. 

Previous injuries may leave scar tissue or cause compensatory movement patterns that redistribute forces in ways that increase friction and pressure in vulnerable areas.

Comprehensive Prevention Strategies

Preventing foot blisters requires a multi-faceted approach that addresses all the contributing factors we've discussed. Success comes from understanding that each element of blister prevention works synergistically with the others, creating a comprehensive defense system for your feet. 

The most effective prevention strategies focus on eliminating the primary causes of friction, moisture, and pressure while supporting your feet's natural protective mechanisms.

Proper Footwear Selection

Choosing the right shoes is fundamental to blister prevention:

Sizing Guidelines:

Proper shoe sizing requires more than just knowing your numerical size, as feet change throughout the day and vary between activities. Shopping for shoes in the afternoon is crucial because your feet naturally swell during daily activities, ensuring you select shoes that will be comfortable when your feet are at their largest. 

A properly fitted shoe should provide approximately half an inch of space between your longest toe and the front of the shoe, allowing for natural foot expansion during movement. 

The widest part of your foot should align with the widest part of the shoe to prevent pressure points and ensure proper weight distribution. Since most people have slight differences between their feet, always fit both feet and choose the size that accommodates the larger foot comfortably.

Material Considerations:

The materials used in shoe construction significantly impact blister formation and overall foot comfort. Breathable materials like leather or mesh allow air circulation that helps manage moisture and temperature, reducing the risk of the wet conditions that promote blisters. 

Avoiding shoes with prominent internal seams is important because these raised areas can create friction points that develop into hot spots during extended wear. Moisture-wicking linings actively move sweat away from your skin, maintaining a drier environment that preserves your skin's natural protective barriers. 

Adequate cushioning provides comfort and shock absorption, but excessive bulk can alter fit and potentially create new pressure points.

Activity-Specific Features:

Different activities place unique demands on your feet, requiring specific shoe features to prevent blisters. Running shoes should focus on proper heel-to-toe drop that matches your running style and arch support that maintains your foot's natural alignment during repetitive motion. 

Work shoes for professionals who stand for long periods should prioritize comfort features and durability, as these shoes often endure extended daily use in challenging environments. 

Hiking boots require ankle support for uneven terrain and should undergo a proper break-in period before long adventures, as the stiffer materials used in hiking footwear take time to conform to your foot shape.

The Role of Quality Socks

Socks play a crucial role in blister prevention, acting as a barrier between your skin and shoes. Traditional cotton socks retain moisture and lose their shape, creating ideal conditions for blisters.

Advanced Sock Technologies:

Modern biomechanical socks, like those developed by Podoks, incorporate scientific principles to address the root causes of blisters:

• Moisture management: Advanced synthetic materials wick sweat away from skin.
• Targeted cushioning: Strategic padding in high-friction areas.
• Compression zones: Proper support to reduce foot movement within shoes.
• Seamless construction: Eliminates friction points that cause hot spots.

Sock Material Comparison:

Different sock materials offer varying levels of performance for blister prevention, making material selection crucial for foot health, especially during athletic activities.

Merino wool provides excellent natural moisture-wicking properties and inherent odor resistance, making it ideal for extended wear and variable weather conditions, though it may retain some moisture compared to synthetic alternatives.

Synthetic blends, often incorporating polyester, or specialized fibers like Coolmax, excel at moisture management and offer superior durability compared to natural fibers, maintaining their shape and function through repeated washing and wear while providing optimal sweat evaporation.

Bamboo fiber socks offer naturally antimicrobial properties and exceptional softness, providing comfort for sensitive skin while helping control bacterial growth, though they may not match the moisture-wicking capabilities of technical synthetic fabrics.

Cotton should be completely avoided for any athletic or extended wear activities because it fundamentally works against blister prevention principles. Cotton fibers absorb and retain moisture against the skin rather than moving it away, creating the exact wet conditions that dramatically increase blister risk. When cotton becomes saturated with sweat, it loses its supportive structure and begins to bunch, wrinkle, and create friction points.

For sports and active pursuits, technical socks incorporating advanced synthetic materials represent the gold standard for blister prevention, offering superior moisture management, durability, and comfort that keeps feet dry and friction-free throughout even the most demanding activities.

Foot Preparation and Care

Proper foot preparation extends beyond simply washing your feet and involves creating optimal conditions for blister prevention through targeted care routines. This preparation becomes even more critical for athletes and active individuals who place greater demands on their feet and face higher blister risks during training and competition.

Daily Foot Hygiene:

Establishing a consistent daily foot care routine forms the foundation of blister prevention by maintaining healthy skin that can better resist friction damage. 

Washing your feet thoroughly with antibacterial soap removes bacteria, dead skin cells, and other debris that can contribute to skin breakdown and infection risk. Complete drying is essential, particularly between the toes where moisture tends to accumulate and create conditions favorable for both blister formation and fungal growth.

Applying foot powder helps absorb residual moisture and provides a protective barrier that reduces friction between skin and sock. Regular inspection of your feet allows early detection of areas showing signs of irritation, enabling prompt intervention before blisters fully develop.

Skin Conditioning:

Maintaining proper skin condition on your feet requires balancing moisture content to prevent both excessive dryness and over-hydration. Keeping feet appropriately moisturized prevents the skin cracking and roughness that can increase friction and create entry points for bacteria. 

Addressing calluses and rough skin promptly is important because these thickened areas can create uneven pressure distribution and become sites of blister formation. 

Specialized foot creams containing ingredients like urea or salicylic acid help maintain healthy skin texture and remove excessive dead skin buildup. However, avoiding over-moisturizing between the toes is crucial, as excessive moisture in these areas can lead to maceration and increased blister susceptibility.

Environmental Considerations

Managing the environment around your feet involves controlling factors that can dramatically impact blister formation, particularly moisture and temperature conditions that affect skin integrity and friction levels.

Managing Moisture:

• Change socks if they become wet or excessively sweaty.
• Use moisture-wicking sock liners when necessary.
• Apply antiperspirant to feet if you have excessive sweating.
• Consider antifungal powders in humid conditions.

Temperature Control:

• Avoid sudden temperature changes that can affect foot swelling.
• Allow shoes to dry completely between uses.
• Use cedar shoe trees to maintain shape and absorb moisture.
• Rotate between multiple pairs of shoes when possible.

Activity-Specific Prevention Tips

Different activities present unique challenges for blister prevention, requiring tailored strategies that address the specific demands and risk factors associated with each type of physical pursuit. Understanding these activity-specific needs allows you to customize your prevention approach for maximum effectiveness.

For Runners and Athletes

Training Preparation:

• Gradually increase training intensity and duration.
• Break in new shoes over several shorter runs.
• Consider gait analysis to identify biomechanical issues.
• Use blister prevention products during long training sessions.

Race Day Strategies:

• Never wear new gear on race day.
• Apply lubricants or protective tape to known problem areas.
• Choose socks and shoes that have proven successful in training.
• Consider bringing backup socks for ultra-long events.

For Workplace Prevention

Occupational blister prevention requires strategies that account for long work shifts, limited ability to change footwear, and the need for professional appearance while maintaining foot health and comfort.

Long Shifts and Standing Jobs:

• Invest in high-quality, comfortable work shoes.
• Use compression socks to improve circulation.
• Take breaks to sit and elevate feet when possible.
• Rotate foot positions regularly while standing.

Healthcare Workers and Service Industry:

• Choose shoes with excellent arch support and cushioning.
• Consider custom orthotics if foot problems persist.
• Replace worn shoes promptly to maintain proper support.
• Use moisture-wicking socks designed for long wear periods.

For Hikers and Outdoor Enthusiasts

Outdoor activities present unique challenges including variable terrain, changing weather conditions, and extended periods away from facilities where foot care adjustments can be made.

Pre-Trip Preparation:

• Break in boots thoroughly before long hikes.
• Test all gear combinations during training hikes.
• Consider carrying moleskin or blister treatment supplies.
• Plan for changing socks during multi-day trips.

Trail Strategies:

• Start with shorter distances and gradually increase.
• Pay attention to foot comfort and address issues immediately.
• Keep feet as dry as possible in wet conditions.
• Consider gaiters to prevent debris from entering shoes.
  

When Prevention Isn't Enough: Early Intervention

Even with the best prevention strategies, situations may arise where early warning signs of blister formation appear. Recognizing and responding to these signals promptly can prevent minor irritation from developing into painful, activity-limiting blisters.

Recognizing Hot Spots

Learning to identify the early warning signs of blister formation can prevent full development:

• Sensation: Burning, stinging, or unusual warmth in specific areas.
• Visual signs: Redness or skin irritation.
• Timing: Usually occurs during the first part of activity.

Immediate Action Steps

When you detect the early warning signs of hot spot development, taking immediate action can prevent progression to a full blister and allow you to continue your activity safely and comfortably.

When you feel a hot spot developing:

1. Stop the activity if possible and inspect the area.
2. Address the cause by adjusting shoes, socks, or equipment.
3. Apply protection using moleskin, tape, or lubricants.
4. Monitor closely for any progression of symptoms.

Protective Products and Techniques

Having the right protective products available and knowing how to apply them effectively can mean the difference between continuing your activity and having to stop due to blister development.

Blister Prevention Products:

• Moleskin: Adhesive padding that reduces friction.
• Blister patches: Hydrocolloid dressings that stay in place.
• Lubricants: Petroleum jelly or specialized anti-friction balms.
• Toe sleeves: Protective coverings for individual toes.

Application Techniques:

• Clean and dry the area before applying any product.
• Ensure proper adhesion to prevent product migration.
• Smooth out any wrinkles or air bubbles.
• Check periodically to ensure products remain in place.
  

The Science of Blister-Resistant Sock Design

Modern sock technology represents a significant advancement in blister prevention, incorporating scientific principles and advanced materials to address the root causes of blister formation.

Understanding these technological innovations helps explain why investing in quality technical socks provides such superior protection compared to traditional cotton alternatives.

Biomechanical Principles

Advanced sock design at Podoks incorporates several scientific principles:

Friction Reduction:

• Smooth, seamless construction eliminates irritation points.
• Strategic material placement reduces shear forces.
• Proper compression prevents excessive foot movement.

Moisture Management:

• Hydrophobic fibers move moisture away from skin.
• Quick-drying materials prevent prolonged wetness.

Anatomical Design:

• Targeted cushioning in high-pressure areas.
• Arch support to improve foot stability.
• Toe box design that accommodates natural foot shape.

Clinical Evidence

Scientific research consistently demonstrates the superior performance of properly designed technical socks as Podoks in preventing blister formation compared to traditional cotton alternatives, providing evidence-based support for investing in quality footwear systems.

Research demonstrates that properly designed socks can significantly reduce blister incidence:

• Studies show up to 40% reduction in blister formation with moisture-wicking materials.
• Seamless construction reduces friction-related injuries by 25-30%.
• Proper compression can decrease foot movement within shoes by up to 15%.
  

Treatment of Existing Blisters

When prevention efforts fall short and blisters do develop, proper treatment becomes essential to prevent complications, minimize discomfort, and promote rapid healing. The approach to blister treatment depends on several factors including size, location, and whether the blister remains intact.

Small, Intact Blister

For small blisters that haven't burst:

• Leave intact when possible to prevent infection.
• Protect the area with a bandage or moleskin.
• Avoid the activity that caused the blister until healing occurs.
• Monitor for signs of infection such as increased redness or pus.

Large or Painful Blisters

Larger blisters or those that significantly interfere with normal daily activities may require more active management to provide relief and prevent complications while maintaining sterile conditions.

• For blisters that interfere with normal activities:
• Consider drainage by a healthcare professional.
• Maintain sterile technique if draining at home.
• Preserve the skin covering for natural protection.
• Apply antibiotic ointment and cover with sterile bandage.

Signs Requiring Medical Attention.

Certain symptoms indicate that professional medical evaluation is necessary to prevent serious complications and ensure proper healing of blister injuries.

Seek professional medical care if you experience:

• Signs of infection (fever, red streaking, pus).
• Blisters that don't heal within a week.
• Recurring blisters in the same location.
• Blisters accompanied by severe pain or disability.

Long-term Foot Health Strategies

Developing resilient, blister-resistant feet requires a long-term approach that builds strength, flexibility, and adaptive capacity while maintaining healthy skin and biomechanics. These strategies focus on creating feet that can better handle the stresses of your chosen activities.

Building Resilient Feet

Strengthening Exercises:

• Toe raises and curls to improve foot muscle strength.
• Calf stretches to maintain proper ankle flexibility.
• Balance exercises to enhance proprioception.
• Arch-strengthening activities like towel scrunches.

Gradual Activity Progression:

• Increase activity intensity and duration slowly.
• Allow adequate recovery time between sessions.
• Listen to your body's signals and adjust accordingly.
• Maintain consistent activity levels rather than sporadic intense periods.

Professional Assessment

Consulting with healthcare professionals can provide valuable insights into underlying factors that may predispose you to recurrent blister problems and help develop personalized prevention strategies.

Consider consulting healthcare professionals for:

• Podiatrist evaluation: For chronic foot problems or recurring blisters.
• Gait analysis: To identify biomechanical issues.
• Custom orthotics: For structural foot abnormalities.
• Physical therapy: For muscle imbalances affecting foot function.
  

Conclusion: Your Path to Blister-Free Activities

Preventing foot blisters requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the multiple factors contributing to their formation. From selecting proper footwear and high-quality socks to maintaining good foot hygiene and recognizing early warning signs, each element plays a crucial role in keeping your feet healthy and comfortable.

The key to success lies in understanding that blister prevention is not a one-size-fits-all solution. Your individual foot structure, activity patterns, and environmental conditions all influence your risk factors. 

By implementing the strategies outlined in this guide and paying attention to your body's signals, you can significantly reduce your risk of developing painful blisters.
Remember that investing in quality prevention measures, including biomechanically designed socks that address the root causes of blister formation, is far more effective and comfortable than treating blisters after they occur. 

Whether you're an athlete pushing your limits or someone who simply wants to stay active and comfortable throughout your daily activities, prioritizing foot health will enhance your performance and quality of life.

Take the first step toward blister-free activities by evaluating your current footwear and sock choices. Your feet carry you through life's adventures, they deserve the best protection you can provide.

Frequently Asked Questions About Foot Blisters

Do certain people get blisters more easily than others?

Yes, individual susceptibility varies significantly. People with softer or more sensitive skin develop blisters more readily because their skin provides less natural resistance to friction forces. Foot structure abnormalities like bunions or hammer toes create different pressure patterns that can cause hot spots. Medical conditions such as diabetes or circulation problems affect skin integrity, while both very young children and older adults have more delicate skin requiring extra protection.

How long does it take for a blister to heal?

Small blisters typically heal within three to five days when properly protected and kept clean. Large blisters may require one to two weeks for complete healing due to more extensive tissue damage. Infected blisters can take significantly longer and often require medical treatment. Healing depends on your overall health, whether you continue friction-causing activities, and how well you follow proper wound care.

Should I break or pop a blister?

In most cases, you should leave blisters intact to prevent infection. The fluid-filled blister acts as a natural protective barrier that cushions the underlying tissue and promotes healing. Breaking the blister creates an open wound that can become infected with bacteria. However, very large blisters that interfere with walking or daily activities may sometimes need drainage by a healthcare professional using sterile techniques. If you must drain a blister at home, use sterile equipment and preserve the overlying skin as a natural bandage.

Is it better to cover a blister or leave it exposed to air?

Covering a blister is generally better than leaving it exposed, especially during active periods or when wearing shoes. A proper bandage or blister patch protects against further friction, prevents contamination, and maintains optimal moisture levels for healing. Hydrocolloid blister patches are particularly effective because they create an ideal healing environment while staying securely in place. Leaving blisters completely exposed can lead to accidental trauma, dirt contamination, and continued friction from clothing or footwear.

Can I exercise with a blister?

Small, well-protected blisters may allow for modified activity if you can adjust footwear or reduce intensity. Large or painful blisters usually require complete rest from the aggravating activity until healing begins. The most important consideration is addressing the underlying cause rather than pushing through discomfort. When in doubt, consult a healthcare provider for guidance tailored to your specific situation.

What's the difference between a blister and a callus?

Blisters are fluid-filled sacs that form quickly from acute friction, typically developing within hours and creating protective fluid between skin layers. Calluses develop as thickened, hardened skin over weeks or months of chronic pressure. Blisters require protection from friction and careful wound care, while calluses may need gradual reduction through filing or professional treatment.

Are there any home remedies that actually work?

Ice application during early stages can reduce pain and inflammation when applied for 15-20 minutes at a time. Aloe vera gel offers natural anti-inflammatory properties that may promote healing. The most important home treatment remains proper wound care: keeping the area clean, dry, and protected from further friction. Avoid folk remedies like breaking blisters with unsterilized needles.

When should I see a doctor about blisters?

Seek medical attention for signs of infection including fever, red streaking, or pus formation. Individuals with diabetes should consult healthcare providers for any foot injuries. Recurring blisters in the same location may indicate underlying biomechanical issues requiring professional assessment. Severe pain interfering with activities or blisters that don't improve within a week also warrant medical evaluation.

Can weather conditions affect blister formation?

Environmental factors significantly influence blister risk. Hot weather increases sweating and foot swelling, creating friction-promoting conditions. Cold conditions cause skin to become dry and susceptible to cracking. High humidity maintains wet conditions that dramatically elevate blister risk. Altitude changes can affect foot swelling patterns, potentially altering shoe fit during activities.

Do blister prevention products really work?

Scientific research consistently supports proper prevention strategies. Quality technical socks can reduce blister incidence by up to 40% compared to cotton alternatives. Properly fitted shoes remain the foundation of prevention, as even the best socks cannot overcome poor footwear choices. Lubricants provide effective short-term protection, but success requires consistent application rather than sporadic use.

-----

Scientific References:

Knapik, J. J., et al. (1995). Friction blisters: pathophysiology, prevention and treatment. Sports Medicine, 20(3), 136-147.

Brennan, F. H. (2002). Managing blisters in competitive athletes. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 1(6), 319-322.

Spence, W. R., & Shields, M. N. (1968). Prevention of blisters, with special reference to distance runners. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(6), 386-388.

Mailler, E. A., & Adams, B. B. (2004). The wear characteristics of acrylic fiber socks compared to cotton fiber socks when worn by soldiers. Military Medicine, 169(8), 601-604.

Herring, K. M., & Richie Jr, D. H. (1990). Friction blisters and sock fiber composition: a double-blind study. Journal of the American Podiatric Medical Association, 80(2), 63-71.

Patterson, H. S., et al. (1994). Foot blister risk factors in military populations. Military Medicine, 159(1), 83-87.

American Academy of Dermatology. (2019). How to prevent and treat blisters. AAD Patient Education, 12(3), 45-52.

Reynolds, K., et al. (1999). Factors affecting blister formation in marathon runners. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 33(4), 259-261.

Jagoda, A., & Madden, L. (2003). Emergency department evaluation and treatment of foot and ankle injuries. Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America, 21(2), 355-395.

Singh, D., et al. (2001). Fortnightly review: plantar fasciitis. BMJ, 322(7281), 227-230.